“From the prehistory of Novelistic Discourses”

“From the prehistory of Novelistic Discourses”

Mikhail Bakhtin(1895-1975)

v Introduction:-

            A Russian literary theorist, Bakhtin has been a great influence on the contemporary theory of Discourse analysis. He is best known by his works named The Dialogic Imagination (1981), Speech Genres and Other Late Essays (1986), Rabelais and his World (1968), and Problems of Dostoevski’s Poetics (1984). In these studies, there is a critique of Russian Formalism and an outline of his characteristic theme of “dialogism.” He criticizes Formalism for its abstraction, for its failure to analyse the content of literary works, and for the difficulty it finds in analysing linguistic and ideological changes. This critique is then extended to linguistics, especially the Saussurean. In his view, the purely linguistic approach to both language and literature is highly limited in scope. It tends to isolate linguistic units or literary texts from their social context, having no analysis to offer of the relations that exist between both individual speakers and texts.

            Bakhtin’s proposal is for a historical poetics or a “translinguistics” which can show how all social intercourse is generated from verbal communication and interaction, and that linguistic signs are conditioned by the social organization of the participants. In his later work, Bakhtin develops his historical poetics into a theory of “speech genres” or “typical forms of utterances.” He claims that the weakness of Saussure’s linguistics is that it focuses solely on individual utterances and is unable to analyse how they are combined into relatively stable types of utterance. Although his speech theory remains incomplete, Bakhtin was ambitious to apply it to everything from proverbs to long novels by analysing their common verbal nature.

            With these major intellectual influences in the background, the Postmodern literature in the second half of the twentieth century grew to show greater impact of the new ideas on the continent and in America, with comparatively much less impact on the literature of the British islands. Mostly used as a periodising concept to mark literature in the later half of the twentieth century, Postmodernism is also used, as we have earlier discussed, as a description of literary and formal characteristics such as linguistic play, new modes of narrational self-reflexivity, and referential frames within frames. Going chronologically and genrewise, we shall try to explore the nature and extent of Postmodernism the literature in Britain absorbed and reflected during the period beginning with the 1950’s.

v His concept of novel:-

            In 1941, therefore Mikhail Bakhtin called novel,

“a young, new ever-changing and developing genre.”

He claimed it as

“the leading hero in the drama of he literary development in our time précised by because it reflect the tendencies of a new world still in the making”

            According  to Bakhtin, all other literary forms were formed during the “eras of closed and deaf monoglossia’ In contrast novel emerged and matures when polyglossia replaced the European ‘World Monoglossia during the Renaissance. The novel of the ancient times, could not develop its full potential because the society the n had no real concept of the future. The internationals and interlinguas relationship with the world emerges form socially isolated and culturally insulted society particular in Europe. This helped in the development of the novel as a genre which is defined as polyglossia.

Bakhtin’s characteristic of novel:-

            Bakhtin enumerates three basic and distinguishing characteristics of the novel as a generic category:

Stylistic three-dimensionality which is linked with the multi- language consciousness realized in the novel.

The radical change its effect in the temporal coordinate of he literary image.

The new zone of he maximal contact with the present in  all its open –endedness.

Thus, Bakhtin locates the genre of novel as “Maximal contact with the present. In its temporal co-coordinates. He states that the two important characteristics of the novel are “the spirit of process and inclusiveness.’

            The novel for Bakhtin is a process ad not product and is therefore in conclusive and open end and better qualified to represent reality deeply, essentially and as sensitively than any other form to literary production. Being plastic in nature it is not colonic. It keeps no epic distance between the image of man and real life. 

Raymond William’s contribution to Modern literary criticism with the reference to his essay Realism and contemporary novel.

Raymond William’s contribution to Modern literary criticism with the reference to his essay Realism and contemporary novel.

v Introduction:-

            Raymond Williams (1921-1988) was a follower of Marxism was a domination literary personality, who made cultural inquiry in literary composition. He performed many roles to contribute to literature, critic, fiction, movies, culture, and awareness and political opposition. He was the true architect of the international disciple of cultural studies. He works as professor of literature at Cambridge, as public intellectual leader of radical cause and author of 7 novels, number of plays and about two dozens academic books. To this railway man’s son the local life of the thriving market toward of Abergavenny and the tradition pattern of mixed forming and market gardening which deepened on it proved the young William with the combination of the country rootedness and welsh Metropolitanism. The local grammar school introduced him to the great freedom of movies and Marxism.

            He won the scholarship to Cambridge and went up to Trinity college and in time to join the Community part and leave it for good. He completed two years study of English literature and worked as editor of the undergraduate newspaper. He witnessed the tragedy of the century in the form of struggles of fascism with socialism and liberalism. After came back from war, he produced two classic books like.

1. “Culture and society” (1959)
2. “The Long and Revolution” (1961)

His “Culture and Society” offers a conceptual history culture as a deployed in English social theory form Carlyle and John Stuart Mill to T. S. Eliot and F.R. Leavis. He opposed the new engines of Capitalism than being welcomed not heart of the bourgeoisie. William charted any amylases culture as a weapon with which he criticize this new economic monster and its unprecedented class society. At Cambridge, he launched himself upon the grad architecture of the inquiry founded in the books like “Modern Tragedy” and “Television Technology and Cultural Form (1974)

            William Raymond, the Marxist critic later into cultural critic. He is in opposition to T.S. Eliot, I.A. Richards. And F. R. Leavis, how constituted culture as an enlist domain. He asked the higher to ask question to European Cultural Society. We can Study the transformation of his personality and attitude for cultural criticism to cultural studies. He was indeed neo the founder of the centre for Contemporary Cultural studies (1964) In Birmingham England.

v His essays; “Realism and The contemporary novel

            This above essay is taken form his “The Long Revolution” where he talked about the tree Revolution in Europe society.

1. The Democratic Revolution 2. The Industrial Revolution. 3. The Cultural Revolution

            Further, he mentions these revolutions as incomplete and continuous  happening in  the history of Europe. As a Marxist, he initiates his essay with the discussion and find on the historical aspect of English critical tradition of a century form 1859 to 1956 he reveals his aims to write the Essay as

1. The first aim of he writing the essay was to discuss the exiting variations in realism.
2. His own views of the ways in which the modern novel has developed.
3. To discuss the possible new smashing realism.

v His concept of Realism

            In the essay Realism and the contemporary Essay, he illustrate many terms of realism. He stress on “an ordinary, contemporary, everyday reality opposed to romantic or legendary subjects.” He considers novel as

“the product of middle class, bourgeoisie and mainly developed in early 18^th century the period of realistic novel”

            He quotes the Daily new in 1881 which says the novel is

“unnecessarily faithful portrayal of offensive incidents.”

            He mention from sociological reality to psychological during the span of the 20 century. By using the Russian terms like Narodnost, Tipichimost Idieanot and Partisonst, he illustrate the social realism in a novel. According to him the novelist presents realism as noraodnost. .. the technical effect as an expression of spirit opposite to formalist. It rejects an ordinary technical meaning of realism where as the term Idieanot and Partinost the terms to refer to the Ideological content and Partison affiliations to such realism. Thus they suggested the development of the ideological or revolutionary attitudes already described. Finally he use the term’s “Tipichimost’ as typical characters in a typical situation. Through Marxist thought, this idea of realism is developed.

v Various the Types of Novels:-

            Raymond Williams intended to present his ideas on or about realism in a novel. So he had to discuss the different kinds of novels. He says novel is not only a form of literature, but also of one place, it include most the form of writing. He say,

“Now the novel is not so much a literary form as a hole literature in itself, with its wide boundaries, there is room for almost every kind of cotemporary writing

So for his novel is potential literature. It is such a form that can include all the forms of literature. Further. He give example to prove his argument like Leo Tolstoy’s “War and Peace, “Middle Master”

v Social Novel:-

            There are two divisions of the social novel 1. The descriptive novel. 2. The Formula Novel.

v  The Descriptive Social novel or documentary deals with a particular social or community. He says, “If we want to know about life in a town, or in a university or on a merchant-ship, or in a patrol in Burma this is the book.” Further he adds, “Of all current kinds of novel, this kind at its best is apparently nearest to what I am calling the realist novel.”

v  Formula Novel About this type of the novel Raymond William says, “a particular pattern,  is abstracted from the sum off social experience and a society is created from this pattern.” As we  find the novels like “A Brave New World’ ‘Nineteen Eight Four’ are powerful social fiction in the  which a pattern taken from contemporary society is materialized in another time or place.

v Personal Novel:-

            Like the social novel, we have tow two divisions of novel as (1) Personal Documentary Novel (2) Personal Formula Novel.

v  Personal Formula Novel: This type of novel deals with a certain kind of personal relationship. To clarify this idea. William says, “There are often very like parts of the realist novels as described and there is  a certain continuity of method and substance.”

E.g. E.M. Forster’s – “A passage to India.”

In order to distinguish personal documentary novel form social documentary novel, he say in the social descript novel there is lack of dimension but in different direction.”

But in the novel personal Documentary “characters were not the aspects society, here the society is an aspect of the characters. Here the society is an aspect of the character. He emphasizes  upon society and the people  of that society through the discussion of novels-realist novel.

v  Personal Formula Novel:- William calls it as “the fiction of special pleading” He illustrate James Joyce’s’ – “Portrait of the Artist as a young Man’ to exemplify  this kind of novel where the vision of the world is seen through one character. Human individual are created from the sum of experiences.

Literary Criticism “Four Kinds of Meaning” () I.A. Richards (1893-1979)

 Paper No. 6 Literary Criticism

 “Four Kinds of Meaning” ()

I.A. Richards (1893-1979)

Q:- Four kind of meaning  

v Introduction:-

            Ivor Armstrong Richards, together with Eliot, is the most influential critic in the twentieth century Anglo-American criticism. Among the moderns he is the only critic who has formulated a systematic and complete theory of the literary art. In the words of George Watson,

            "Richards' claim to have pioneered Anglo-American New Criticism of the thirties and forties is unassailable. He provided the theoretical foundations on which the technique of verbal analysis was built. "

            He and T.S. Eliot are pioneers in the field of new criticism. Richards is often compared with Coleridge. Like Coleridge he is am of wide learning. He is widely read not only in literature, but also in philosophy, psychology, aesthetic , the fine arts and the broad principles  of the various sciences.

v His critical Works:-

            I.A. Richard’s  reputation as a critic lies on a limited number of critical books he wrote. The relevance of psychology to literary studies emerges clearly in his first book, The Foundations of Aesthetics (1922),written in collaboration with his two friends. In this book the authors have tried to define 'beauty' by studying its effects on the readers. His second book, The Meaning of Meaning (1923) was written with Ogden; it distinguished between the symbolic use of language in science and its emotive use in poetry. In The Principles of Literary Criticism (1924), Richards alone explains his psychological theory of value and explores the emotive language of poetry. The work is a landmark in the history of literary criticism and even since verbal and textual analysis, interpretation and evaluation of the basis of literary appreciation. Therefore I.A. Richards and T.S. Eliot are called the founding father of New Criticism.

v an advocate of a close textual and verbal study

A study of Richards's a staunch advocate of a close textual Practical Criticism; A Study of Literary Judgment reveals that Richards is a staunch advocate of a close textual and verbal study and analysis of a work of art. Similar interest in the study of words is revealed in his book, Meaning of Meaning. Total meaning of a poem is combination of several contributory meanings of four different types—

1. Sense, 2. Feeling, 3. Tone, and 4. Intention.

v Sense

            Sense means plain literal meaning. Words which communicate something which gives plain literary menacing without communication any hidden or under layer meaning.

Feeling:-

v Feeling

Feeling refers to emotions emotional attitudes, will, desire, pleasure, unpleasure, and the rest. When we say something, we have feeling about it, “An attitude towards it some special direction bias or accentuation of interest it, some personal flaour or colouring of feeling.

Words express ‘these feelings and these nuances of interest.

v Tone:-

            By tone is meant the writer’s attitude to his reader. The write chooses his words and arranges them keeping in mind the kind of readers likely to read his work. There is a relation between the writer and his reader and the tone reflects the awareness of this relation.

v Intention

            Feeling is only a stat of the mind. It does not imply an object. But intention has an object. Intention is the writer’s aim which may be conscious or unconscious. It refers to the effect one tries to produce. This purpose modifies the expression. It controls the emphasis shapes the arrangement to draws attention to something of importance

            According to Richards “Originally language may have been almost pure emotion that is  to say

1.      A means of expression feelings about situation.

2.      A means of expressing impersonal attitudes

3.      A means of bringing about concerted action.

v The context:-

            Words also acquire a rich associative value through their use by different poets in different contexts. The context in which a word has been used is all important. "Words have different meanings in different contexts. Words are symbols or signs and they deliver their full meaning only in a particular context. They work in association and within a particular context. He writes : "A context is a set of entities (things or events) related in a certain way; these entities have each a character…; “

            Meaning is dependent on context, but the context may not always be apparent and easily perceptible. Literary compositions are characterized by rich complexity in which certain links are suppressed for concentration or effective and forceful expression. Frequent mention is therefore made of the 'missing context' and 'ambiguity.' In ordinary blemishes in writing, but in poetry or even in artistic prose they are a source of embellishment and a means of effective communication of meaning. The literary critic is expected to understand and expand the context so that the poem may become intelligible and its full value may be grasped.

Relation between ‘Sense’ and ‘Feeling’:-

            Words have different meanings in different contexts. Sense and feeling have a mutual dependence. "The sound of a word has much to do with the feeling it evokes."

1.                  First, it may arise from the meaning and be governed by it. The feeling is the result of grasping the meaning.

2.                  Secondly, the meaning arises from the feeling evoked. Thus the word 'gorgeous' first generates a feeling from its sound.

3.                  Thirdly, sense and feeling may be related because of the context. A complete poem can influence a single word or phrase contained in it either through the feelings or through the sense. The feelings already occupying the mind limit the possibilities of the new words. This is because words are ambiguous in themselves and they acquire new meanings when they are charged with feelings.

          Hence Richards argues that we need one careful reading to find the meaning and another to grasp the feeling.

v  Rhythm and Metre:-

            The meaning of words is also determined by rhythm and metre. Rhythm results from the repetition of particular sounds and the expectancy this repetition arouses in the mind. Metre is a specialised form of rhythm. It is rhythm made more regular and cast into set and well-formed pattern. Both rhythm and metre are organic and integral parts of a poem, for they both determine the meaning of the words used by the poets. Richards' remarks in this connection are interesting and deserve to be quoted in their entirety

 “ Rhythm, metre and meaning cannot be separated; they form together a single system. They are not separate entities but organically related. Therefore, a paraphrase or an over literal reading can never convey the total meaning of a poem.”

v Metaphors:--

            Successive readings are necessary to understand the poetic meaning. Poetic truth is different from scientific truth. It is a matter of emotional belief rather than intellectual belief. It is not a matter of versification, but of attitude and emotional reaction.

For the purpose of communication, the use of metaphoric language is all important.

"A metaphor is a shift, a carrying over of a word from its normal use to a new use".

Metaphors may be of two kinds : (I) sense-metaphors, and (2) emotive-metaphors. In a sense-metaphor the shift is due to a similarity or analogy between the original object and the new one. In an emotive metaphor the shift is due to a similarity between the feelings the new situation and the normal situation arouse. The same word in different contexts may be a sense-metaphor or an emotive one.

v  Conclusion:-        

            I. A. Richards stresses on close textual and verbal study of a poem. His study of words as means of communication and his stress on their four-fold meaning and on the way in which meaning is determined by rhythm and meter are original and striking gone a long way towards shaping the course of literary criticism in the 20^th century. His critical methods, verbal and structural analysis, interpretation and evaluation a work of arts starred the vogue of experimentation  and analysis in literary criticism. 

Literary Criticism Assess the achievement and contribution of I. A. Richards as a critic.

v Assess the achievement and contribution of I. A. Richards as a critic.

v Introduction:-

            Ivor Armstrong Richards, together with Eliot, is the most influential critic in the twentieth century Anglo-American criticism. Among the moderns he is the only critic who has formulated a systematic and complete theory of the literary art. In the words of George Watson,

"Richards' claim to have pioneered Anglo-American New Criticism of the thirties and forties is unassailable. He provided the theoretical foundations on which the technique of verbal analysis was built. "

            He and T.S. Eliot are pioneers in the field of new criticism. Richards is often compared with Coleridge. Like Coleridge he is am of wide learning. He is widely read not only in literature, but also in philosophy, psychology, aesthetic , the fine arts and the broad principles  of the various sciences.

v His critical Works:-

            I.A. Richard’s  reputation as a critic lies on a limited number of critical books he wrote. The relevance of psychology to literary studies emerges clearly in his first book, The Foundations of Aesthetics (1922),written in collaboration with his two friends. In this book the authors have tried to define 'beauty' by studying its effects on the readers. His second book, The Meaning of Meaning (1923) was written with Ogden; it distinguished between the symbolic use of language in science and its emotive use in poetry. In The Principles of Literary Criticism (1924), Richards alone explains his psychological theory of value and explores the emotive language of poetry. Practical Criticism (1929) was based on the lecture-room experiments conducted in Cambridge in which he distributed poems, stripped of all evidence of authorship and period, to his pupils and asked them to comment freely on those poems. The only other important critical work of Richards is Coleridge on Imagination which was published in 1935.

 The work is a landmark in the history of literary criticism and even since verbal and textual analysis, interpretation and evaluation of the basis of literary appreciation. Therefore I.A. Richards and T.S. Eliot are called the founding father of New Criticism.

v a staunch advocate of close textual and verbal study

As a critic, I. A. Richards is not only learned and abstract but also iconoclastic and original. He is a staunch advocate of close textual and verbal study and analysis of a work of art without reference to its author and the age. His approach is pragmatic and empirical. He is the father of the psychological criticism as well as of New Criticism. Such new critics as John Crowe Ransom, Kenneth Burke, Cleanth Brooks, R. P. Blackmur, Robert Penn Warren, William Empson, despite differences in their theory and practice, have repeatedly acknowledged their indebtedness to him. He has made liter aiy criticism factual, scientific and complete. It no longer remains a matter of the application of set rules or mere intuition or impressions. He developed the unhistorical method of criticism.

v importance to the art of communication

He holds that adequate knowledge of psychology is essential for a literary critic to enter into the author's mind. He also gives paramount importance to the art of communication and brings out a distinction between the scientific and the motive uses of the language. Before coming to the value of imaginative literature he first formulates a general psychological theory of value, and then applies it to literature. This is scientific or psychological approach to literature. Poetry, according to him, represents a certain systematisation in the poet, and the critic, for a proper understanding of the poem, must enter and grasp this systematisation and experience of the poet. He should also be able to judge the value of different experiences, i.e., he should be able to distinguish between experiences of greater and lesser value.

"The qualities of a good critic are three," says I. A:. Richards. "He must be an adept at experiencing, without eccentricities, the state of mind relevant to the work of art he is judging. Secondly, he must be able to distinguish experiences from one another as regards their less superficial features. Thirdly, he must be a sound judge of values." Richards himself possesses these qualities

v Psychological adjustment

I. A. Richards'value as a critic also lies in his conclusions about what imaginative literature is, how it employs language, how its use of language differs from the scientific use of language, and what is its special function and value. His conclusion, at this stage in the development of his critical ideas (for it should be noted that Richards developed his views in different directions in his later works), is that a satisfactory work of imaginative literature represents a kind of psychological adjustment in the author which is valuable for personality, and that the reader, if he knows how to read properly, can have this adjustment communicated to him by reading the work. Training in reading with care and sensitivity is therefore insisted on by him and again this has had a great influence on modern criticism, which has more and more come to insist on the importance of a proper reading of the text.

v Phe mystic nature of the poetic experience.

            Just as Shelley used Platonium to remove Plato's objections to poets, in the same way Richards tried to use science to remove the scientist's objections to poetry. He called his book, Principles of Literary Criticism, "a machine for thinking with," and the arguments are expressed with scientific rigour. In the first two chapters of this book he criticises the prevalent notions about artistic value. The questions which a critic must ask, according to Richards, are "what gives the experience of reading a certain poem its value? How is this experience better than another? Why prefer this picture to that? In which ways should we listen to music so as to receive the most valuable moments? Why is one opinion about works of art not so good as another? These are the fundamental questions which criticism is required to answer, together with such preliminary questions— What is a picture, a poem, a piece of music? How can experiences be compared? What is value?—as may be required in order to approach these questions.

v  Conclusion

In conclusion we may say that Richards did a great service to literary i riticism by linking it with psychology. But some people are of the opinion i at this psychological approach to literary criticism makes it too technical and dull a subject. Furthermore, Richards' conclusions are based on psychology as it is today, and with the changes and development of psychology and our understanding of the human mind, this theory might lose its importance or vanish completely. Some people also doubt whether literary criticism based on individual psychology can ever explain fully

Literary Criticism “Modern Style Theory” () Walter Pater(1839-1894)

Literary Criticism

 “Modern Style Theory” ()

Walter Pater(1839-1894)

Q:-Pater’s views on  Modern style theory

Q:- “A writer, full of a mater he is before all things anxious to express, may think of those laws, the limitations  of vocabulary, structure and the like as a restriction, but if a real artist we find in them an opportunity. Justify the argument. Or Write a not on the limitation and achievements of Walter Pater as a critic keeping his ‘style’ theory in mind. Or  Examine the Walter Pater’s view on Style.

v Introduction:-

            The 19^th century was a period of intellectual activity in England. The scientific development had a great effect on the literature of this period. There was the sprit of liberty and democracy everywhere on account of industrial progress, there were classes in the society, the capitalist and laborers. The rich exploited the poor. Some writers came to their help and presented this bitter social realty in their works. Against such writer, there were some writer who were in favour of art and beauty. They thought that the people were deprived of aesthetic tradition due to hard work and love for wealth. They also believed that the modern civilization spoilt the beauty their art for artist sold their art for money only. They wanted to preserve the beauty and purity of art.

v Art for Art’s sake:-

            A regular movement started in France and in England during the second half of the nineteen century. ‘Art for Arts’ sake’ was the slogan of this movement. Flaubert and Gautier originated it in France. James Whistler imported in to England and Oscar While and Walter Pater followed it their works. In America Edgar Allan Poe followed this esthetic moment and said,’ “I make beauty the province of the poem.”

v Advocate of art: (style)

            Pater was a great advocate of art for art’s sake as Arnold was an advocate of ‘Art for life’s sake’. He gave more importance to expression than to matter. He believed that ‘delight is the chief, if not the only aim of poetry.’ In his definition of style we find echo of Longinus. He declared that

 “Style reveals the artist’s soul itself.” 

            Thus style is the central problem of the literary art. The artist is a lover of words. He put music on a much lighter pedestal than other fine arts. He found fusion of soul and sense in poetry. Pater also showed difference between good art and great art in his essay, “on style”, he points out that “Good art is not necessarily great art because great art has something impressive in the quality of the matter it informs of control” It is related to great and note of revolt and largeness of hope. “

v Architectural concept of art:-

            Pater is not a pedant. He uses proper words in proper place. He des not uses two words where one is enough. He has an architectural concept of art. He foresees the end in the beginning. He creates a conscious artistic structure. He point out that the writers’ means of expression are diction, design and personality. By diction, he mans the choice of words, style is the manner of writing. It is commonly construed with matter. Something the reader remarks that the style or manner is good but the matter is bad. Here matter means only raw material but of which an artist makes something which is more interesting and beautiful for example wood is the mater of material out of which cloth is made and the cloth is matter out of which coats were made in this same way words are the poet. Thus the matter means the thought of ideas which the artist wants to express.

v Design organic whole

            The requirement of style is the combination of words into an organic whole. It is not just a series of words or sentence, but an architectural design which has an organic unity. Pater call it ‘the necessity of mind in style’. It is the work of the mind to combine word with word, phrases with phrase, sentence with sentence, part with part till they become one whole and one with the subject. It is like an  Aristotelian pot with a beginning a middle and an end.

v Personality the soul in stye:-

            The third requirement of the style is ‘the soul in style’, with all the unity of design; style may lack warmth, colour and perfume. The writer’s personality gives this living touch. It is his breath in his work. He communicates his personality through language. By mind, the literary artist reaches  us step by step, but by ‘soul’ he overcomes us. Here we get the man in his style. At the same time, it has something universal or the ‘soul’ of the humanity in it. Flaubert does not regret the old dictum

‘Style is the man’,

but he goes a step ahead and say,

‘Style is the real man’.

Pater says,

“Good art depends upon the mind and great art depends upon mind & the soul.”

            Such art increases men’s’ happiness enlarges our sympathies, ennobles our soul and takes us to the glory of God. Pater admires lamb’s style for his touch of friendship, warmth, love and care and also for his deep sympathy for the weak and the oppressed. In the mater of style he considers lamb next to Shakespeare on account of the reflection of his personality.  Lamb’s sympathy and affection brings us into a close contact with his soul.

v Style and Composition

            Here Pater shows the difference between style and composition.  Both these words means combination of words, sentences and paragraphs in an order. But Composition depends upon mind only. It is the mechanical side of writing and it requires mechanical correctness only. But in style we find artist’s genuine expression of his personality. According to Pater, style is not the product of external forces only which work upon the artist’s personality. Though the artist’s personality is formed by the external forces, there is no direct relation between the external forces and style.

v Trick of style.

            Pater further points out that style means the way in which we use words for he purpose of expression. Expressiveness is the main purpose of style. Language must be confused if the thought behind it is confused. He points out that style can not be clear unless, the thought is clear in a work of art if the words are sued to impress the reader without any striking idea, we call it ‘a trick of style’. In such a case, it is not style at all, but it is an insulting noise.  Style is a gay, serious or ornamental, severe and odd according to he artist’s temper. Style will be haphazard, conventional and characterless if the artist’s mind is moving carelessly here and there. Thus Pater observes that style is the reflection of the artist’s personality.

v Conclusion:-

            Thus Pater holds that the pleasure of the moment is the sole end of art. There is one room in his palace of art that is dedicated to the Service of God and 

Literary Criticism “Tension in poetry” ()

Literary Criticism “Tension in poetry” ()

Allen Tate (1899-1979)

Introduction :-The rise of New Criticism:-

            The new criticism which was a school of criticism flourished during the first half of the twentieth century in America and England. It put the theory of inspiration off the gear. It assumes a close and causative relationship between society and literature and between society and the writer. It is the stress on textual criticism which has made it new. Otherwise there is nothing new in it. It had its origin in the writings of T. E. Hulme; but it is now mainly an American movement. The term was first used by J. E. Spingam. Its chief exponents in America are Kenneth Burke, John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate, Richard Blackmur, Cleanth Brooks, etc. In England its leading representatives are I. A. Richards, T. S. Eliot, F. R. Leavis, William Empson, etc.

            It was the reaction against the external school of criticism which focuses on sociological, historical and biographical aspects of a text. It is an internal school of criticism. Different New critics of poetry answered differently in response to the question… “What is poetic in poetry?” To the new critics poetic poetry is “its ability to attract attention towards itself.”

About this ability,  R. S. Crane aptly remarks,

“From I. A. Richard’s concept of ‘behavior of words’.. or Allen Tate’s theory of tension’, w fin the same search for the meaning of words. “

v Allen Tate as a critic:-

            John Oley Allen Tate is an American poet, essayist and social commentator. Hr wa the Poet Laureate Consultant in poetry in 1943-44. Tate is certainly more comprehensive than J. C. Ransom. However both belongs to the group of American critic. John Paul says.. “Allen Tate’s  prominence among the New Critics sets him in a position next Ransom.”

v Two Types of Meaning :-

            Allen Tate states that very age has used different approaches to examine different works. According to him every age uses language differently. This she shows with example from different poem. He say that in most of the poems., we find two kinds of language.

1. Denotative (surface meaning) and (2) Connotative (hidden)

            The first one refers to ‘logical or superficial meaning of the poem’. The second one means ‘implied or metaphorical meaning of the poem.’ Many criticism emphasized on denotative aspect of the poem, while some concentrated only on connotative meaning of the poem. According to Tate. “Only that poetry is good poetry which communicate both the aspect, connotative and denotative.

v “Tension in Poetry’ An Essay of Great Worth”

            In this essay, Tate is concerned with the question. “How can the quality of a poem be determined” He believes that it can be determined by the effect resulting form its meaning. To examine the way in which the poem attains its total meaning, he takes two words from logic. These words are ‘intension’ and ‘extension’. He removes the prefix and says that the poetry attains its totality in ‘Tension’. A poem therefore has both a literal meaning and also metaphorical meaning. Extension is denotative. Therefore it is the literal meaning. On the other hand, intension’ is connotative. Therefore it is the metaphorical meaning a poem. A good poem is one where both of these exit tighter Tate say, “Good poetry is unity of all the meaning form the extremes of intention and extension.

            Thus combination of intension and extension result in tension. Thus the presence of tension is the touchstone of good poetry for Tate. He explains the tern ‘tension’ as follow that Tension is the core of the poetry. It can be called the entrance through which multiple meanings can be attained. He by the term ‘tension’ never intend the ‘psychological tension’ he classifies that I am using the term not as general metaphor but as special one derived form lopping. He prefix of the logic term extension and intension.

v Some Examples given by him.

            In order to explain the importance of the presentence of both the denotative and connotative aspects in a poem, he gives the examples of some poems. These poems are either deficient in the denotative aspect or a failure in the connotation. Therefor, they do not qualify to be ransked as good poems. Afterwards, he presents the example of his poetic touchstone in which we find the presence of ‘tension’.

v Illustration of Fault Denotation:

            Tate give the example of a 19^thcentury lyric ‘The Vine” by Jame Thomson (1834=1822)..

“The wine of Love is music,

And the feast of Love is song;

And when Love sits down to the banquet,

Love sits long…

The great rich Vine.”

These line have no logical meaning. This poem is therefore, a failure in docontation.

v Illustration of Fault connotation:-

            Then he gives an example of Abraham Cowley’s *\(1618-1667) “Hymn – To Light’. This poem is a success as far as denotative aspect is concerned but it is  a failure in connotation.

First born of Chaos, who so far didst come

From the old Negro’s darksome womb!

At last must flow.”

            These line lack in connotative intensity. Therefore a good poem is the one in which both the denotative and connotative aspects are present. M.H. Abram says that it seems as if “Tate means that ha good poem incorporates both the abstract and the concrete, the general idea and the particular image in an integral whole.”

v Illustration of Touchstone’

            Tate gives an example of his poetic ‘touchstone’ in which we find present such tension. In the third part of his essay, Tate gives a target from ‘Durante Alighieri (1265-1321) ‘Inferno’ as an instance of tension. Paolo and Francesca were lovers. They can not meet each other due to circumstance. The poet asks Francesca,

“From which place do you come.”

She answer in three lines,

“Sitteth the city, wherein I was born

Upon the sea-shore where the Po descends

To rest in peace with all his retinue”

Here the literal meaning of these lines is that she was born in a town that is on the bank of the Sea-shore, where the river ‘Po’ falls along with the other rivers. But the metaphorical meaning is more than just this description of the place. When Francesca fuses herself with the rive Po, there is mingling of extension and intension. The streams could be the desires of vove for Paolo. When ever she goes her desire follow her. Here we have hidden means laso . that is reiver attains peace that originates out of communion, but she is anot able to meet her lover. Thus both the intesion and extension become one and creat ‘tension.

v Conclusion:-

In this way, Tate has made a significant contribution to the world of literary criticism. He has found out the new way of achieving full peand perfect meaing from a poem. Estiamateing Allen Tate’s criticism essay, Eva Thospmas staes, “Allen Tate is the critic, who arealyl had gove to reality and siginfance of their highest type of the poetry ithat is created by the symbolic imagination.”

Literary Criticism Q:- Definition and functions of criticism

Literary Criticism Q:- Definition and functions  of criticism

What is according to Arnold is the definition and function of criticism.

Introduction:-

            Mathew Arnold was a great Victorian poet-critic. He wrote some poetry before he turned  to criticism. That way, his criticism is the criticism of a man who had personal experience of what he was writing. He never considered poetry as something apart from life. To him, it was never ‘Art for Art’s sake’. It had a serious concern with the art of living itself. It was also criticism of life. He expects high seriousness form a great literary artist as we find Homer, Dante and Shakespeare.

Criticism as an Art:-

            According to Arnold, literary criticism is also an art. T.S. Eliot remarks,

“Criticism is not an end in itself. IT is a means to a great understanding literary works.”

            Art must be experience and criticism assists that process. Arnold says that in the modern world, poetry does not the work of religion. A great poet must make a disinterested effort to learn and propagate the best ideas in the world. And a critic of art should judge a work of art in the light of the best classics of the world.

Importance of Criticism

            In his essay, “On Translating Homer”, Arnold says, “In all branches of knowledge, the main critical effort is to see the object as in itself it really is>” Thus he gives great importance to criticism. Many critic did not agree with him and asserted superiority of the creative effort of they human spirit over its critical effort. Wordsworth also gave little importance to criticism. Arnold agrees that false criticism should not be encourage. He also admits that critical faculty criticism is better than creative literary. For example, Dr. Johnson’s creative play “Irene’” is not better than his critics works “The lives of the Poets”. Wordsworths’ Preface to the Lyrical Ballads” is better than his sonnets. 

Creative Power:-

            Arnold further points out that ‘creative power is the highest function of man. Man’s true happiness lives in his creative work. But he can use his creative power in other ways also. The use of the creative power in the production of great works is not possible in all ages. Man is concerned with the current ideas of his own time.

            A poet must have a thorough knowledge of life and he world. And in modern times life and the world are very complex. So there must be a great critical power behind the creation. Otherwise, his poetry will be poor, barren, and short-lives. Byron had more creative than critical power, while Goethe had more critical than creative power.

            Of course, books are a source of great ideas, but mere reading is not always enough. Shelly and Coleridge had deep reading while Pindar, Sophocles and Shakespeare were not deep readers. And yet they became supreme artist. The reason that they lived in a current of ideas in as stream of fresh ideas. During French revolution in the first quarter of the 19^th century no great works of art were produced only because it was a political and practical movement and not a spiritual one.

            According to Arnold, the most important quality of criticism is its ‘disinterestedness’ and a critic shows it by keeping aloof from the practical views of the things. Criticism has nothing to do with an y external political or practice consideration about ideas. The real business of criticism is to know that best that is know and though in the world and thus to create a current of true and fresh ideas. While much of English criticism is guide by practical consideration. For example, the French Journal propagate the best that is known and thought in the world, while most of the English journals are guided and controlled by one party or the other.

            Then Arnold remarks that too must of self-satisfaction is dangerous for human beings. For example ‘Sir Charles Adderley said that the English race is the best breed In the whole world’. Roebuck also said “I pray that our unrivalled happiness may last.” While Arnold agrees wit Goethe who said ‘”The little that is done seem nothing whom we look forward and see how much we have yet to do.” In “Advancement of Learning” Bacon also puts forth the same idea.

            A true critic should come out of the sphere of practical lie and should follow the virtue of self-detachment. He should things as they really are. Common people never see thinks as they are they are always satisfied with every inadequate idea. Here Arnold regret that in English most the people are guided practical consideration and thus fail to see things as they real are. A true critic should be independent of the practical aim. Criticism should not be based on practical importance. A critic should know how to wait, be flexible, how to attach and also detach himself with things of the world. The main function of the criticism to is to find out those element which are necessary for spiritual perfection.

            Now Arnold comes to the question, what should be the subject matter of Criticism? It is the disinterested endoavour to learn and propagate the vest that is known and thought in the world, and thus establish a current of fresh and true ideas. For this purpose, a critic must read the literature of as many centuries and language as possible. An English critic can not entirely depend upon English thought because English is not all world. Must of the best that is known and thought in the world can not be of English growth only.

            Arnold firmly believes that he current English literature is mostly mediocre ,and does not come into this best that is known and thought in the world. The current literature of France and Germany is richer in the his respect. A critic must have a through knowledge of the literature of other countries besides his own. That criticism is really values which regard the whole of Europe as being bound to a joint action and works to a common result. Its members have a thought knowledge of Greek, Roman, and Eastern antiquity. They are linked together by the idea of the best that is know and thought in the world.

            At last Arnold, declares that criticism can not also become a creative activity certain ages when creative literature is not possible. Criticism not only paves the way for the creative artist. It itself becomes a creative art. The best literature is produced when a man of genius is possessed by a current of truth and living ideas and writes under their influence and inspiration. This is proved by the ages of Sophocles and Shakespeare

Literary Criticism Write an essay on the New Critics and New Criticism of the twentieth century.

Literary Criticism “Tension in poetry” ()

Allen Tate (1899-1979)

Ø Write an essay on the New Critics and New Criticism of the twentieth century.

v Introduction:-         

            New Criticism, born and nurtured during the late twenties and early thirties of the present century, are in sharp reaction to Sociological or Marxian criticism which regarded a litterateur a product of the society in which he lived.

            It put the theory of inspiration off the gear. It assumes a close and causative relationship between society and literature and between society and the writer. It is the stress on textual criticism which has made it new. Otherwise there is nothing new in it. It had its origin in the writings of T. E. Hulme; but it is now mainly an American movement. The term was first used by J. E. Spingam. Its chief exponents in America are Kenneth Burke, John Crowe Ransom, Allen Tate, Richard Blackmur, Cleanth Brooks, etc. In England its leading representatives are I. A. Richards, T. S. Eliot, F. R. Leavis, William Empson, etc.

            The New Critics are opposed to the biographical, historical, sociological and comparative approach of conventional criticism. Similarly, they reject the traditional division of literature into periods and groups for the purpose of criticism. All such considerations are regarded as extrinsic and irrelevant and a work or art is judged solely on its own merits. Their criticism is Intrinsic or Ontological, and not Extrinsic. A poem, a piece of literature, is the thing in itself, with a definite entity of its own separate both from the poet and the socio-cultural milieu in which it is produced. The emphasis is laid on the study of the text, and its word by word analysis and interpretation. The music of a poem, its imagery and versification, its total structure must be taken into account to arrive at its meaning. Words must be studied with reference to their sound, and their emotional and symbolic significance. New Criticism is predominantly textual, and the new critics have rendered valuable service to literature by their study and interpretation of literary classics. While Eliot has his affinity with the critics of the new school, he is against too close a scrutiny of a work of art. The poem is the thing, and it must be studied in itself, but he is against the 'lemon-squeezer' critics who press the words too closely. Although the term 'new criticism' was first used by Joel E. Spingam in his address at Columbia University, yet it came in general use after John Crow Ransom published his book, The New Criticism in 1941. And it was I. A. Richards who provided the theoretical foundations.

v The Contribution of the New Critics

            Speaking about the contribution of the new critics, Pritchard observes : "their concentration upon linguistic expression has benefited the study of poetry. Readers needed to realize that 'the poem's the thing'. 3y this redirection of poetic study and by the publicity they have given to poetic problems they have increased the number of readers of poetry. Even their too sweeping assertions, by stirring opponents to combat them, have injected new life into the study of literature. The self-evaluation of the New Critics during the past few years, and the indications that they are increasingly ready to widen their study, are encouraging signs. Whether this expansion indicates their further development or their disappearance as a school, no one can now say. They remain, however, one of the most important and colourful schools of criticism which the century has yet produced."

v The Basic Tenets of the New Critics

            It is yet too early to make any definitive evaluation of their work and contribution. Therefore, it would be more fruitful to consider their basic tenets, tenets to which they all subscribe despite their individual differences. These basic doctrines and principles may be summarized as follows :

(a)    To the New Critics, a poem, or a work of art, is the thing in itself, and the critic must concentrate all attention on it and illuminated it. The function of the critic is to analyse, interpret and evaluate a work of art. A poem is distinct from the poet and his social milieu; it is a definite entity in itself and must be studied as such. The critic must devote himself to close textual study, unhampered by any extraneous concerns.

(b)    Moral and religious considerations, social, political and environmental conditions, the details of the poet's biography, are all irrelevant and are all obstacles in the way of a real understanding of a, work of literature. The literary critic must rid himself of all such extrinsic bias and prejudices. He must approach the work with an open mind, ready to study it, "as is in itself."

(c)    The critic must not allow himself to be hampered and prejudiced by any literary theories also.

(d)   A poem has both form and content and both should be closely studied and analysed before a true understanding of its meaning becomes possible.

(e)    Words, images, rhythm, metre, etc., constitute the form of poetry and are to be closely studied. A poem is an organic whole and these different parts are inter-connected and these inter-connections, the reaction of one upon the other, and upon the total meaning, is to be closely followed, and examined. That is why a prose paraphrase cannot convey the total,and poetic, meaning of a poem.

(f)        The study of words, their arrangement, the way in which they act and react on each other is all important. Words, besides their literal significance, also have emotional, associative, and symbolic significance, and only close application and analysis can bring out their total meaning. The new critics, in their minute scrutiny of words, and the structure of poetry, have propounded different theories. "From I. A. Richard's concept of the 'behaviour' of words, through Empson's seven categories of "ambiguity" with their subdivisions, to John Crowe Ransom's principle of'texture' of Robert Penn Warren's preoccupation with symbols, or Allen Tate's theory of 'tensions', we find the same search for the meaning of words, for the strange transformation they undergo as they react on one another for the way they contribute to build up the structure of the poem— the unified whole of which they are the parts.

(g)    Poetry is communication and language is the means of ::ommunication, so the New Critics seek to understand the full meaning of a poem through a study of poetic language. As R. C. Crane has aptly remarked : "So everything turns, for I. A. Richards, on the opposition of 'referential' and 'emotive' speech; for John Crowe Ransom, on the antithesis of logical 'structure' and poetic 'texture', and for Brooks, on the contrast between the 'abstract' language of science, and the 'paradoxical' language of poetry. Thus, for the New Critics words are all important, and their study is the only key to the poetic meaning of the poem.

(h)    The New Critics are opposed both to the historical and comparative methods of criticism. Historical considerations are extraneous to the work of literature, and comparison of works of art is to be resorted to with great caution and in rare instances alone for the intent and aim of writers differ, and so their method, their techniques, their forms, are bound to be different.

(i)      They are also anti-impressionistic. Instead of giving merely his impression, which are bound to be vague and subjective, the critic must make a close, objective and precise study of the poem concerned.

Conclusiton:-

In short, they concentrate on close textual study, on the study of the form, design and texture of poetry. A poem can be only through its meaning— since its medium is words—yet it is, simply is, in the sense that we have no excuse for inquiring what part is intended or meant. Poetry is a feat of style by which a complex of meaning is handled all atonce." The object of critical analysis should be the poem itself, to approach which either by way of its origins in the mind of its maker or by way of its results in the mind of its maker or by way of its results in the mind of the audience would be critical fallacies. They may be called the intellectual fallacy and the effective fallacy.

v Allen Tate

            In prominence as a New Critic, Allen Tate stands next to Ransom. Born in Kentucky, he studied at Georgetown and Washington, and graduated in 1922 from Vandcrbilt University, Tennessee. He edited the Hound and Horn from 1931-34, and Swanee Review from 1944-46. His important critical works include Reactionary Essays in Poetry and Ideas (1936), Ransom in Madness and The Forlorn Demon (1953).

            Allen Tate is opposed to theories which connect literature with history, sociology, or with any other of the sciences, or which would like to use it for propaganda. The critic should concentrate his attention on the poem, and see how well it has been done as it has been done, or "how it should have been done is not criticism. The purpose of a poem is not to confirm any theory, for then it would be no poem but propaganda. The notion that poetry has some moral and social ends is not poetic but philosophical.

            While Ransom stressed that poetry deals exclusively with objects, and rigorously included ideas from its domain, Tate is more receptive to ideas. There are certain ideas and beliefs which are the common heritage of the people and the poets, and if such ideas and beliefs are used by the poets, they, sharing those beliefs with the readers, would be left free to concentrate on the structure of poem. For example, Dante shared belief in medieval theology with his readers and thus he could concentrate fully on its structure and the artistic gain was enormous. Similar is the case with the Paradise Lost of Milton. In the modern age, there is no commonly shared system of beliefs and ideas, and so art tends to be abstract. Lack of such a common animating idea is a fatal deficiency in American literature. Like Eliot. Tate also believes in the importance of tradition. Poets should make use of tradition, of traditional beliefs and ideas, but they should also modify tradition by their use of it. Hence in the work of a great

 poet there is always a tension between the old and the new, between tradition and experiment.

            Poetry has two meanings : denotative (indicated or signified by sign) and connotative (emotional). "To indicate the denotative aspects of language, Tate uses the term extension and intension to denote its connotative aspects.

            Tate is against the historical or moral criticism. The critic should not make a moral judgment, rather he should deliver a total judgment.